Continued from Part Five – Akhyana – Ramayana
Part Six ( of 22)- Gandharva or Marga Music
Gandharva – Svara, Taala and Pada
After Saman and Akhyana, let’s take a look at the Gandharva or Marga Music.
1.1. The term Gandharva by itself means Music in general (Gandharva-shastra) and the Gandharva form of Music in particular. Gandharva Music regarded as Marga signifies something that which is chaste or classical. Marga, by its very nature, is rather sombre and not quite flexible. Gandharva was said to be the Music performed for worship of gods since the ancient times. It is both sacred and well regulated (Niyata).
The early Gandharva songs were in praise of Shiva (Shiva-stuti). And, Shiva himself is said to have taught this Marga Music, on his Veena, in his Sri Dakshinamurthy form, to the sages sitting around him.
Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2) calls the Gandharva-vidya as Devajana -vidya ( the art of the Devas). And, it is said : Ganat parataram na hi – nothing is higher than that music.
[According to Naradiya-shiksha, the term Gandharva is composed of three elements: Ga (Gayana-singing); Dha (Dhatu, words/lyrics); and, Va (Vadhya – instrumental accompaniment)
When Gandharva-s are referred to as bards or the singers of praise-songs (Stuthi), the Taittiriya Pratishakha classifies Gandharva-s into two broad classes: Deva-Gandharva and Manushya-Gandharva.
The former, residing in the skies or in water , in company of the Apsaras; being divine, graceful and extremely handsome demi-gods. Some of them were musicians in the court of Indra, the King of gods.
And, the latter, the Manushya-Gandharva, being human in form and approach; characterized by devotion.
As regards the Deva-Gandharva-s, some of the famed Gandharva-s were: Vishvavasu, Parvat, Narada and Tumburu. It is said; Narada played Vallari and Mahathi type of Veenas. And, of the two, he used to hang around his neck the Mahati-Veena while he wandered around the three worlds.
The Gandharva figures are depicted in the Buddhist tradition also. The pairs of Gandharvas are shown as playing Veena, standing on either side of the Buddha; as can be seen from the paintings in the Ajanta; and in the sculptures at Mathura, Amaravati and Nagarjuna-Konda]
1.2. Gandharva or Marga is a sort of counterpart to Saman; and yet, the two are different types of Music. The Svaras in the early Saman were arranged in descending order (Avaroha); and, the concept of Grama –Vibagha (classification as per Gramas) was also not there.
The Gandharva Music, in contrast, is based in Gramas and in the ascending and descending order of Svaras (Aroha-Avaroha).
In fact, the term Gandharva, either as a class of Music or of musicians, does not appear in Rig-Veda. Similarly, plying of cymbals and marking of Taala also does not appear in conduct of Yajna or in Sama singing.
Further, while the Saman singing was in the context of a Yajna; the Gandharva, on the other hand, seemed to be the singing by trained singers on other worship-occasions (Puja). Taittiriya Aranyaka (1.9.30) mentions a group of eleven Gandharva-singers (eti ekadasha gandharva-ganah) who sang songs in praise of gods.
1.3. Abhinavagupta, commenting on Natyashastra , strikes a conciliatory note; and, remarks : Although there is no structural similarity between Saman and Gandharva, the fruit (Phala) of rendering the two is indeed the same – bestowing bliss and leading towards Moksha. Such Music is a worthy offering to gods. And, the gods would be delighted with sublime Music than with reading Puranas or lecturing on Yoga exercises.
In support of his observation, Abhinavagupta quotes verses (26,27 and 28 of Chapter 36) of the Naytashastra :
The recital of poetry, performance of dance (drama) along with songs and instrumental music are equal in merit to the recitation of Vedic hymns.
pāṭhyaṃ nāṭyaṃ tathā geyaṃ citravā aditrameva ca । veda-mantrārtha-va-canaiḥ samaṃ hyatad bhaviṣyati ॥ 26॥
I have heard from the god of gods (Indra) and even from Shankara (Shiva) that music (vocal and instrumental) is indeed purer and superior to taking a ceremonial dip in a river and repeating a mantra (Japa) a thousand times.
śrutaṃ mayā devadevāt tattvataḥ śaṅkarāb-ddhitam । snāna japya saha srebhyaḥ pavitraṃ gīta vāditam ॥ 27॥
Whichever places that reverberate with the auspicious sounds of songs and music of Natya will forever be free from inauspicious happenings.
yasmin nātodya nāṭyasya gīta pāṭhya dhvaniḥ śubhaḥ । bhaviṣyatya śubhaṃ deśe naiva tasmin kadācana ॥ 28॥
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2.1. Historically, Gandharva occupies an important position in the Music of India. It acts as a bridge between the Music of Saman and the Music of the later generations that has come down to us through series of transformations. In the Gandharva, the original descending Sama Veda scales were recast into new ascending and descending seven Svara (note) structures.
These seven notes of the Gandharva – Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni – were adopted in Natyashastra and in Dattilam (Svara-saptaka); and ,more importantly, they are in use even today.
[The Gandharva music is significant, in another way too; because, it moved away from Yajna (offering havis to Agni, the fire); and, adopted the approach of prayers and Puja – worship, adoration. It became a counterpart to Sama which was chanted at the Yajna. Since then, worship through or with music has remained at the center of most Puja or Seva activities, with flower and other offerings.]
Therefore, getting to know Gandharva might help to gain a historical perspective of our Music.
3.1. Bharatha explains the term Gandharva as the Music dear to gods (atyartham iṣṭaṃ devānāṃ), giving great pleasure to Gandharvas; and, therefore it is called Gandharva.
(atyartham iṣṭaṃ devānāṃ tathā prīti-karaṃ punaḥ | gandharvāṇāṃ ca yasmād dhi tasmād gāndharvam ucyate || (NS Ch. 28, 9).
3.2. Following Bharata who said : Gandharvam trividham vidyath Svara-tala-padat-makam (NS.28.11), in Verse three of the Dattilam , its author Dattila explains Gandharva as a collection of notes (Svara) which is based in words (Pada- thatha–Svara sanghtah); which is measured by time-units (Taala) ; and, which is performed with diligence (prayukthas savadhenena) is known by the name of Gandharva .(Gandharvam abhijayate) .
Pada – thatha- Svara sanghtah Talena sumitas thatha I Prayukthas savadhenena Gandharvam abhijayate II
Another ancient scholar Vishakilacharya (?) also describes Gandharva in similar terms; as that which is the confluence of Svara, Pada and Tala (Svara-pada-Tala samavaye tu Gandharvam)
And, Naradiyashiksha (1.4.12) gives the etymology of the term Gandharva by splitting it into three parts. It explains Gandharva as made of: Ga – the song (giti geyam vidhuhu); Dha – playing on the Veena by skilful use of fingers (karupya vadanam); and , Va – other instruments and gestures (veti vadhyasya sanjnya) ; and says ‘ this indicates Gandharva (ye Gandharvasya nirochanam).
3.3. Abhinavagupta , in his Abhinava-bharathi (a commentary on Natyashastra), remarks that Gandharva which is sung from time immemorial bestows both evident or seen (Drsta) and not-evident or unseen (A-Drsta) benefits (Phala). It is pleasant to the ears and to the mind; and, it also brings merit paving way towards liberation .
(anāditvād dṛṣṭā-adṛṣṭa-phalatvāc ca pradhānaṃ gāndharvam… | gānaṃ hi prīti-kārye vartate | tena tādātmyaṃ tāvad ayuktam |).
3.4. The terms and concepts of the Gandharva musical tradition were described, mainly, in Bharatha’s Natyashastra and in the Dattilam of Dattila. Natyashastra devotes about nine chapters to Gandharva Music – vocal and instrumental.
And, a major part of 243 verses of Dattilam is about Gandharva. The Verse Six of Dattilam mentions that the text aims to discuss, mainly: Sruti (micro tone intervals), Svara (notes) , Grama (systems), Murchana (scales) consisting series of notes (Tana) , Sthana (voice registers) , Vritti (styles) , Suska or A-gita (playing on Veena following vocal style but without singing) and Sadharana (two ways of over lapping).
Svara, Taala and Pada
4.1. Gandharva is said to be governed by the combination of Svara (tonal structure); Taala (time-units); and, Pada (text), in association with various musical instruments (Gaandharvam trividham vidhaat svara-tala-pada-atmakam).
Thus, song, Veena and flute all contributed to Gandharva. Dattilam explains it in a similar manner, calling it Avadhana, conscious (samyag baddha) melodic employment of Svara, Taala and Pada. And yet, the scholars reckon the Gandharva Samgita was essentially vocal. The objective of the Gandharva songs (Stuti pada-s) was to praise of Shiva (Shiva-stutau prayojani) and to please the gods (atyartham iṣṭaṃ devānāṃ).
4.2. In Gandharva, the Svara, Taala and Pada had hierarchical positions
– (Gāndharvaṃ yan mayā proktaṃ svara-tāla-padātmakam).
Svara and Taala enjoyed prominence. However, Svara and Taala do need the substance (vastu) or the form of Pada – the text – as their base. Bharata, therefore, says that Pada serves as an aid to Svara and Taala (Padaṃ tasya bhaved vastu svara-tālānubhāvakam). Padas were, perhaps, modified to suit Svara and Taala. In other words, lyrics of a song were subject to Svara (melody) and Taala patterns.
Specific examples of modifications of Pada are listed in Dattilam: changing Agne to Ognayi; disjoining syllables – Viyate to Vo Yi to Ya Yi; stretching a syllable – Ye to Ayi; repetition of words – Ya Yi – Ya Yi; unwarranted break in Pada – Gunano havyadataye to Gunanoha… Vyadataye; and insertion of meaningless sounds – Au, Ho, Va, Ha, U, Eha, Aho-i, Oha-i etc. These were the practices carried forward from Saman singing.
4.3. However, between Svara and Taala, Gandharva assigned a secondary position (angāngi-bhāva) to Taala; and the prime position to Svara. Taala was governed by rigid rules measured by time-units (matra), having a fixed number of delineations, by the strikes of hand-held cymbals (Ghana). In Gandharva, no deviation was allowed from the set pattern. The main task of Taala was to provide fixed measurement of time to the notes; and, to maintain Saamya (coming together) a point of resolution that provides a sense of balance. (It could perhaps be akin to Sam of Hindustani Music..!)
5.1. According to Matanga, Svara is the sound which has musical quality that creates melody. When the interval between the notes (Sruti) is raised or lowered, the musical quality gets altered. And, such musical sound is different from other sounds. Thus, Sruti and Svara-s are vital elements of a song. The difference between the two is that the former has no resonance, while the latter has it.
5.2. Abhinavagupta explains the term Svara as derived from the root Sva of the expression Sva–bhavadi-gana. And, Svara has both Sabda (sound) and Upa-taapa (warmth of feeling) – śabdopa-tāpayoḥ. He goes on to say; the mind ordinarily grasps plain sounds. But, a Svara has the power to infuse various emotions into the sounds and to influence the mind. And, thus, the Svara has resilience to assert itself over mundane noises and stray thoughts.
5.3. Dattilam , as in Natyashastra (28.24) , says Svaras are seven starting with Shadja (Dattilam .11) ; and they are of four types: Vadi (sonant); Samvadi (consonant); Anuvadi (assonant) and Vivadi (dissonant).
chaturvidha tva meteṣāṃ vijñeyaṃ gānayoktṛbhiḥ । vādī caivātha saṃvādī vivādī cā anuvādyapi ॥ NS.88. 22॥
Vadin is the note that produces the melody. As Vadin is repeated often, the other notes are used in relation to it . For instance; the two Svara-s, with an interval of eight or twelve Sruti-s between them, are called Samvadi of each other. Ni and Ga are Vivadi (discordant) to other Svaras. The Svara following a Vadi Svara is called Anuvadi.
Svarah shadja adayah sapta gramau dvau shadja madhyamau / kechid gandharam apy ahuh sa tu nehopalabhate // (Dattilam .11) //
Dattila explains these terms: “Vadin is the king (Swamin); Samvadin is the minister who follows him (Amatya); Vivadin is like the enemy who disrupts (Satru), and should be sparingly employed; and, Anuvadi denotes the retinue of follower (Parijana).”
Abhinavagupta adds a word of caution; and remarks that Dattila’s analogy just as any other analogy is rather brittle; and, should not be pressed very hard.
Sruti
6.1. Before going into the other elements of Gandhara Music we may talk a bit about its concept of Sruti.
Bharata refers to Sruti in his statement: Jatibhih Srutibhiscaiva svara gramatva-amagatah (NS 18, 5-6) – through Jaatis and Sruti-s the Svara attains the state of Grama.
6.2. Dattilam (9) mentions that the notes in the higher register (Tara) are on the upper end of the Veena (Uttarottara-taras tu venayam); and the notes in lower register are on its lower end (adharottarah). The difference in sounds (dvani visesha) so produced is understood as Sruti (Sruti samjnitah); and, that difference can be perceived only through practiced listening (iti dvani visesas te sravanah). ‘And, with these Sruti-s one sings all the songs’ (Dattilam.10)
Uttarottara-taras tu venayam adharottarah / iti dhvani visesa te svara varna ca chrutisamjnitah//9// te bhyah kamscid upadaya giyante svara giti su / adriyante ca ye tesu svaratvam upalabhya te //10//
6.3. Prof. Dr. Ramanathan explains that Sruti, here, is the unit of measure (pramana) of Svara-s, and also the basis on which Svara-s were classified into Gramas. Thus, what is important in a Grama is the number of Sruti-s that link the Svara.
6.4. Abhinavagupta points out : In fact it is for the very purpose of classifying the Gramas that the concept of Sruti was formulated (Grama-vibhagarthm eva Sruti-kirtanam); else, it had no existence in performance .
(evam gramadvayam tadupayoge ca Sruti; sadbhave svaranam Sruti niyama pramanya bhidhaya)
6.5. Dr. Ramanathan explains: In the ancient system, Svara was conceived not merely as a sound of fixed pitch position, but also as comprehending the entire tonal range between itself and its previous svara. The interval which separated one Svara from another was measured in terms of Sruti-s.
6.6. Sruti is, thus, a distinctly cognizable, audible sound-interval (not a precise mathematical or physical measure) that separates one Svara from its next. The listening acumen of the musician is the sole guide to measure the rise or fall in Sruti. And, this is achieved only by diligent practice (Sad-abhyasa) , as Abhinavagupta says – Sruteh Sabdasya Srotragr -Ahyasya utka.
[Naradiyashiksha remarks: one who is not able to distinguish between the Srutis cannot be called a teacher – Srutinam yo visheshajno na sa acharya uchyate – (Nar,Shi 1.7.9) ]
6.6. According to Bharatha, Sruti is basically an interval. And, Svara is measured in terms of Sruti. When you call a Svara as Dvi-srutika, it means that two Sruti-s are separating a Svara from its previous Svara. Similarly, the terms Tri-srutika and Chatus-srutika mean that there are three and four Sruti intervals, respectively, between a Svara and the previous Svara. Let’s say; when one speaks of Tri-srutika in relation to Ri it would mean that it is the third distinctive sound from Sa ; and also that it is three Srutis away from Sa.
Bharatha adds that the lowering or raising could be done by loosening or tightening of the strings in the case of stringed instruments.
[Dr. Ramanthan comments : While Bharatha explains Sruti as the unit of interval, Dattila (9-10) understands it as the pitch positions or sounds that can be distinguished from one another.]
6.7. Abhinavagupta explains the term Sruti, in his unique manner, as the sound (sabda) produced (prabhavita) when struck at appropriate position (śruti-sthāna-abhighāta) on the Veena. And, the note produced afterwards continuously by resonance is Svara. And says, when the Sruti is exact (anuraṇana) it transforms into resonant sweet flow of sound pleasing to the ears and to the heart (snigdha-madhura). Here, Anuraṇana is the physical aspect of Sruti; while snigdha-madhura is its aesthetic beauty.
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Gandharva – Music elements – Jaati, Murchana and Grama
Jaati
8.1. The Gandharva songs were rendered in melody-forms or modes called Jaatis, which perhaps, did not allow much scope for elaboration.
The Jaati-s were formed by Svaras which in turn were made of measurable units of intervals (Sruti).
8.2. Natyashastra mentions eighteen Jaati-s. Of these, seven are called Shuddha Jaati-s. These are the Jaati-s which have the Svaras (notes) after which they are named, such as: Graha, Amsa and Nyasa. To this, Dattila adds Apa-nyasa. The Nyasa of Shuddha Jaati is Mandra.
The Shuddha–Jaati had all the seven Svaras. When any one or more of these were dropped, excepting the Nyasa (final note), the Shuddha Jaati would become Vikrta (modified).
śuddhā vikṛtāścaiva hi samavāyājjātayastu jāyante । punarevāśuddhakṛtā bhavantyathaikādaśānyāstu ॥ 46॥
[It is also said: When a Svara leaves its own place and or the Sruti-s specified for it assumes another place or contains other Sruti-s, it becomes Vikrta. For instance; When Rsbha assumes the four Sruti-s of Shadja it becomes Vikrta.]
By the combination of the two or more Jaatis the eleven Samsargaja–Vikrta would be formed.
(In Ramayana only seven Jaatis were mentioned .They, perhaps, were derived from Ga Grama).
8.3. Natyashastra (28.66) lists ten characteristics of a Jaati:
: – Graha – It is the initial note –Adi-Svara– used at the beginning of a song;
: – Amsa – It is the prominent note (key note ) in the song ( According to some, it is another name for Vivadi Svara). The melodic expression of the song depends on it;
: – Tara – It is the high register; the upper limit of the notes to be used. It is the fourth note from Amsa which belongs to middle sthana;
:- Mandra –It is the low register; the lower limit of the note to be used;
: – Nyasa – It is the note with which the song ends;
:- Apa-nyasa– It is before the final note (penultimate) . It is note with which a section of the song ends –Vidari;
:- Alpatva – It is the use of a note or notes in small measure. It is twofold: by skipping over the particular note or notes; and by non-repetition;
:- Bahutva – It is of two kinds: by using the notes fully or by repeating it often;
:- Sadavita –Six notes are used omitting one;
:- and, Audavita -Five note are used dropping two.
daśakaṃ jātilakṣaṇam – grahā aṃśau tāra mandrau ca nyāso’ apanyāsa eva ca । alpatvaṃ ca bahutvaṃ ca ṣāḍava auḍuvite tathā ॥ 66॥
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[Dattilam (55) also lists the ten characteristic of Jaati as: Graha, Amsa, Tara, Mandra, Sadava, Audavita, Aplatva, Bahutva, Apa-Nyasa and Nyasa
Graha amsau tara mandarau ca sabda baudubite kramat / alpatvam ca bahutvam ca nyaso apanyasa eva ca //55//]
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[Later, Sangita-ratnakara (1.7.29-53) adds three more lakshana-s : Samnyasa, Vinyasa and Antara-marga.
Samnyasa the final note of the first part (Vidari) of a song is described as ‘a note which is not dissonant (Vivadi) with the dominant note (Amsa); and, which concludes (samapti-krt) the first part (Vidari) of a song.
Vinyasa, the final note of the pada (a division of a song) is explained as a note that is not dissonant (Vivadin) with regard to the dominant note (Amsa). And, it stands at the end of the verbal-theme (Vidari-bhaga-pada-pranthe).
Antara-marga is an intermediate note which occurs in the midst of the notes practiced rarely (madhye-madhye alpatva yujam). It brings in variety (vichitratva-kariny) and is practiced without repetition and with isolated omissions. And, as a rule it occurs in the modified (Vikrta) Jaati (krta sa antara-margah syat prayo vikrta Jaatishu).]
The Amsa being the prominent (key) note in the Jaati was often used in combination with its Samvadi (consonant) and Anuvadi (assonant) Svaras.
[In the later times, the music of the Jaatis with its many varieties gave rise to the Raga system.]
Murchana and Grama
9.1. Murchana is described as the ordered or the sequential arrangement of the seven Svaras. The term Murchana is derived from Murch – to increase or to pervade. Natyashastra says that Murchanas are so called because seven notes are used in order (kramayutah) in their fixed positions. Narada in his Shiksha said: tana-raga-svara-grama- murcchana tu lakshanam- (II. 1) – Murcchana is that which comprises – tana, raga,svara and grama.
Later, in Gandharva, Murchana came to be understood as an arrangement having a gradual Aroha (ascent) and Avaroha (descent) of the seven Svaras (notes). Different musical expressions were derived from the Murchanas by permuting the seven Svaras in any number of ways. Of such rearrangements, the one where the seven Svaras were placed in their sequential order was called Krama. And, the one where the Svara-sequence was not in the order was called Kutatana. The logical method of computing Krama and Kutatana was called Prastara.
9.2. As said earlier; it was on the basis of Sruti-s that the intervals of the Svaras in a Jaati were measured. Abhinavagupta explains Grama as jaati-samudaya (collection of Jaatis). Jaati, again, refers to class of melodic types, which were constructed out of Murchanas.
It is also said that Grama is the resort in which the Murchana-s reside.
9.3. A scale of notes starting on a particular note is said to be Grama – Gramaha swara samuhaha syaath.
In the Gandharva, the Murchana arrangement was under two parent scales or Gramas: Madhyama (Ma) and Shadja (Sa) – Jatibhih Srutibhis chaiva Svara-Gramatvam agatah- NS.28.24-26. ‘Here there are 22 Sruti intervals’.
The Jaati-s were, initially, grouped under three Grama-s (group or cluster) known as Gandhara (Ga); Madhyama (Ma) and Shadja (Sa). The Ga Grama, it appears, went out of use quite early. And, out of the other two Gramas (Sa and Ma), fourteen Jaatis were formed.
Natyashastra also talks about two Gramas : Shadja Grama or Sa-grama ; and , Madhyama Grama or Ma-grama.
9.4. The term Shadja means ‘giving birth to six’. And, it refers to the first defining note of the Grama – Sa. Once this note is fixed, the placement of other six notes is determined. The Shadja Grama is the collection of the seven Svara-s namely: Shadja (Sa), Rsabha (Ri), Gandhara (Ga), Madhyama (Ma), Panchama (Pa), Dhaivata (Dh) and Nishadha (Ni).
Desiya Ragas were said to be a result of Sa-grama: Deshee ragascha sakalaha shadja grama samud-bhavaha . The notes in Sa-grama were called Shuddha swaras .
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The Madhyama Grama also has seven Svaras (Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni) ; but , the sequence or the order of the two Gramas differ.
Under each Grama, the intervals between two consecutive Svaras (measured by Sruti) also differ. For instance ; Sa Grama has Srutis as : Sa (4), Ri (3), Ga (2) , Pa(4) , Dha (3) and Ni(2). And, the Ma Grama has : Sa(4) , Ri(3) , Ga (2), Ma (4) , Pa (3), Dha (4) and Ni(2). And, therefore the Murchana obtained from one Grama differs from that of the other.
[You may notice: the Pa note of Ma Grama is one Sruti lower. Therefore, the interval between Pa and Dha of Ma-Grama becomes longer, that is four Srutis. ]
As can be seen; the interval of two Srutis is the smallest; then, there are intervals of three Srutis and four Srutis. Natyashastra gives the number of Srutis in the Grama as 22. But, they were not named. Dr. Ramanathan remarks: Though the number of Sruti-s is said to be 22; this number has no sanctity attached to it. What is important in the Grama system is the number of Sruti-s within a Svara.
Murchanas
10.1. It is said; there were four types of Murchanas: Purna (full), the heptatonic with all the seven Svaras; Shadava (hexatonic) with six Svaras; Audava (Pentatonic) with five Svaras; and, Tanas or Sadharani-krta (including overlapping notes, like Kakili Nishada).
kramayuktāḥ svarāḥ sapta mūrcchanetyabhisaṃjñitāḥ । ṣaṭpañ ca svara kāstānāḥ, ṣāḍavau ḍuvitāśrayāḥ ॥ 28.32॥ sādhāraṇakṛtāś caiva kākalī samalaṅkṛtāḥ । antara svara saṃyuktā mūrcchanā grāmayordvayoḥ ॥ NS.28.33॥
Natyashastra mentions: The variety of Tanas and Murchanas, thus arising, provide enjoyment to the listeners and to the musicians, as well. They do help the singer in improving his voice registers (sthana-prapti).
As said earlier; the Svaras of the Murchanas of the Shadja Grama are seven (Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni). If the commencing Svara (initial note – Graha) is changed, but the intervals between the Svara (Sruti) is kept unchanged, it then is called Graha–Bedha. It was through this method, it is said, Murchanas were derived from Gramas.
Each of the seven Murchanas of the Shadja Grama is called by a name. They are:(Uttaramandra; Rajani; Uttara-ayata; Shuddha-Shadja; Matsarikruta; Ashvakranta ; and, Abhirudgata).
ṣaḍje cottaramandrā syādṛṣabhe cābhirudgatā । aśvakrāntā tu gāndhāre madhyame matsarīkṛtā ॥ 28.29॥
| Sa-Ri-Ga-Ma-Pa-Dha-Ni | Uttaramandra |
| Ri-Ga-Ma-Pa-Dha-Ni-Sa | Rajani |
| Ga-Ma-Pa-Dha-Ni-Sa-Ri | Uttarayata |
| Ma-Pa-Dha-Ni-Sa-Ri-Ga | Shuddha-Shadja |
| Pa-Dha-Ni-Sa-Ri-Ga-Ma | Ashvakrantha |
| Dha-Ni-Sa-Ri-Ga-Ma-Pa | Matsyakrantha |
| Ni-Sa-Ri-Ga-Ma-Pa-Dha | Abhirudgata |
The Murchanas of the Madhyama Grama were also seven (Sauviri; Harinasva; Kalopanata; Shuddha-madhyama; Margi; Pauravi; and, Hrsyaka).
atha madhyamagrāme -sauvīrī hariṇāśvā ca syātkalopanatā tathā । śuddhamadhyā tathā mārgī pauravī hṛṣyakā tathā । madhyamagrāmajā hyetā vijñeyāḥ saptamūrcchanāḥ ॥ 28.31॥
| Ma-Pa-Dha-Ni- Sa-Ri-Ga | Sauviri |
| Pa-Dha-Ni-Sa- Ri-Ga-Ma | Harinasva |
| Dha-Ni-Sa-Ri- Ga-Ma-Pa | Kalopanata |
| Ni-Sa-Ri-Ga- Ma-Pa-Dha | Shuddha-Madhya |
| Sa-Ri-Ga-Ma- Pa-Dha-Ni | Margavi |
| Ri-Ga-Ma-Pa- Dha-Ni-Sa | Pauravi |
| Ga-Ma-Pa-Dha- Ni-Sa-Ri | Hrsyaka |
The Murchanas of the two Gramas add up to fourteen.
The Gandhara Grama also gave rise to seven Murchanas. However, it was obsolete by the time of Natyashastra.
**
[The explanations by about the seventh century seemed to be slightly different.
Matanga (7th century), in his Brhaddeshi, described Murcchana as the elaboration of ‘the seed form of the raga’ (murcchamoha-samucchrayayoh) . And, he said , such elaboration is possible when the seven Svara-s of a Raga manifest in the processes of ascent (aroha) and descent (avaroha).
The Murcchana-s , according to Matanga, evolved from the Gramas as their base. And, twenty-one Murcchana-s evolved from the three main Gramas-Shadja, Madhyma and Gandharva. Each Murcchana possessed a special unit of aesthetic sentiment.
Matanga said: Murcchana were of two kinds: one, having seven Svaras and the other having fourteen Svaras (sa-Murcchana dvi-vidha; sapta-svara-Murchanat dvadasha-svara-Murchana cheti).
The Murcchana with Seven Svaras was divided into four parts: Purna, Shadava, Audava, and Sadharana, The Purna contained Svaras (hexatone ) ; Shadava , six Svaras (heptatone ) ; Audava , five Svaras (pentatonic ) ; and the Sadharana , two displaced (vikrita} Svaras : antara-gandhara and kakali-nishada.
The Murcchana with Twelve Svaras manifest in three registers (Sthana): low, medium and high (Mandra, Madhya and Tara).]
*
[As regards the Gandharva Grama which went out of use quite early, Naradiyashiksha and Sangitaratnakara mention the names of its seven Murchanas as: Nandi, Visala, Sumukhi, Chitra, Chitravati, Sukha and Aalapa.
According to Shri KV Ramachandran the noted music-critic of yester years, the high pitched Ga Grama was used for gods and heavenly beings, Narada, Urvashi etc. That perhaps explains why Ga Grama came to be associated with heaven in the later works.
And, in a similar manner the Jaati, Grama, Murcchana etc system of Music based in two Gramas (Sa and Ma) came to an end by the time of Sarangadeva (13th century). Thereafter, the scholar-composers derived the Ragas only from Sa Grama ; and discarded the Ma Grama . It was said; Ma Grama had become defunct as its Panchama was but a mere variety of Madhyama.
For instance; Ramamatya (16th century) derived all the Desi Ragas from Sa Grama. Pundarika Vittala (16th century) also said that all Ragas are derived from Shadja-Grama . And, Venkatamakhin (17th century) who followed him said that Ma Grama does not seem to exist. And, he recognized only the Sa Grama. According to Venkatamakhin, all the Desi Ragas originate from Sa Grama.]
10.2. In the Gandharva Music, it is said, the Murchana of one Grama could be derived from the other. Thus, if the Panchama (Pa) of the Shadja Grama is lowered by one Sruti, it would result in Madhyama Grama. In a similar manner, Murchana of Madhyama Grama could be converted into Shadja Grama by lowering its Daivata (Dha) by two Srutis.
[The Daivata that is so lowered is now named Gandhara (Ga). Then Nishadha (Ni) and Shadja (Sa) would be called Madhyama (Ma) and Panchama (Pa), respectively.]
Abhinavagupta comments: In Gandharva, dropping of notes in two Gramas, as also on the basis of Amsa notes, was governed by definite rules. For instance; Daivata (Dha) was indispensible in Shadja Grama; and, in Madhyama Grama, Panchama (Pa) could never be dropped from any Jaati.
10.3. In addition, there was also the practice of using one or two Svaras more (in addition to the seven) in a Murchanas. Such additional (overlapping) Svaras were called Sadharana Svaras.
[It’s too cold in winter and too hot in summer. But, there is also a comfortable season which is neither cold nor hot; it is neither summer nor winter. It is between the two seasons. And, this is the Sadharana Kaala – the common season. And, so are the Sadharana Svaras.]
In the Murchana, the additional Svaras between two Svaras – (Sadharana Svara) are not separate individual Svaras, but are chosen from among the seven. They are resorted to only when the respective Grama-Svaras are weak. And, Sadharana-Svara is weaker than the Grama-Svara, and therefore it cannot become the commencing Svara of a Murchana.
[It is said; there would also be Murchanas with Sadharana Svaras (with Antara Ga and Kakili Ni) of two scales.]
Taana
11.1. Apart from the Seven-Svara Murchanas and Murchanas with Sadharana Svaras, there were also some Murchanas which had only six Svaras (Shadava) or five Svaras (Audava). And, these were called Taanas (from the root tan = to spread out), which formed the basis for various musical forms.
For instance; Sa Grama will have four Taanas when Sa, Ri, Pa and Ni are dropped successively. Similarly, there will be three Taanas in Ma Grama when Sa, Ri and Ga are dropped successively.
As regards Audava Taanas, Sa-Pa, Ri-Pa and Ga-Ni are dropped in Sa Grama; and Ga-Mi and Ri-Dha are dropped in Ma Grama.
Matanga says that the five-note Audava Taana could be obtained generally by omitting the Samvadi (consonant) Svara; and, in some cases it may be obtained by omitting the Anuvadi (assonant) Svara also.
In all, the Murchanas of the two scales would be 35.
[Taana-s are said to be twofold: Shuddha and Kuta. when Svaras are sung in a regular order it is Shuddha; and. when sung in an irregular order it is Kuta.
Matanga explains the difference between Murchana and Taana as the difference in the order (karma): the former has an ascending order while the latter has descending order. The purpose of both the Murchanas and the Taanas are was to provide pleasure to the listener as also to the performer. Perhaps, I think, these (Murchana and Taana) variations related to Veena plying than to human voice. ]
11.2. How the notes are to be omitted for the sake of Taana is given in Taana-kriya on the Veena (Dattilam. 36). The Taana-kriya, the technique is twofold (Taana-kriya dvidha tantryam) – Pravesika and Nigraha. Pravesika (entering) is raising the lower note or lowering the higher note. Nigraha (abstaining) is not touching the string (asamsparka tu nigrahat) , i.e. , not producing the middle note as the middle note would denote Murchana. The Ma-note of the Veena may never be omitted as it was essential for indication of Murchana-s of the two Grama-s.
(Taana-kriya dvidha tantryam praveshena nigrahat tatha I tatra pravesho dhvanyaikyam asamsparka tu nigrahat II)
[The scanty information posted here about Murchanas, Gramas and Jaatis was, roughly, according to Natyashastra and Dattilam. In the later centuries, just before the time of Matanga‘s Brihad-desi ( 6th to 8th century) , the concept and the method of deriving Murchana, as also the connotation of Jaati and its further evolution had changed much.
And, by the time of Brihad-desi, the concepts of Grama, Murchana and Jaati had all but gone. After this period, the Ragas came to be regarded as the melodic-base of the songs. Initially, the Ragas were treated as janya-s (derivatives) of the Jaatis. But, in due course the relation between Ragas and Jaatis tapered out, and then ceased. Similarly, the Svaras that gave form to Ragas came to be described in terms of Shuddha or Vikrta Svaras; and, the relation between Svaras and Gramas of the past was also lost.]
Gandharva – Music forms
12.1. The following were said to be the song- formats of the Gandharva Music (Giti): Gitaka; Nirgita; Jaati-gita; Kapala-gana; and, Kambala-gana. Of course, all these forms vanished long ago. And, even historically, the scholars are not sure of their origins. Each of the four forms seemed to have come from a different tradition. The relation or the link between the forms is also rather hazy or uncertain.
12.2. Among these, Gitaka and Nirgita type were said to be songs with definite structure. The Jaati-gita, on the other hand, was said to be a song-type with no specified format. Kapala-gana and Kambala-gana were said to be simpler songs.
[In another context, it is said: the relationship between the Gana and the Veena playing is called Giti (when Veena playing is not accompanied by singing, it is A-giti). Abhinavagupta explains: every type of Giti can be played on Veena, And, there are three types of Giti: Tatva , Anugata and Ogha. When the Gana is prominent and the Veena follows Gana completely , it is Tatva; When the Veena follows Gana in some part and then shows its own craftsmanship , it becomes Anugata; and , when the playing techniques becomes A-nibaddha and the Karanas become more prominent and the Gana becomes secondary then the Giti becomes Ogha . Thus in the rendering of the Giti, Veena performs an important role.]
Gitaka
13.1. As said; Gitaka is a well structured song format. There were major divisions or groups of Gitaka-s, each group having seven song-forms. The seven forms of the first Division were (Sapta-rupa): Madraka; Aparantaka; Ullopyaka; Prakari; Ovenaka; Rovindaka; and, Uttara. And, the seven forms under the second Division were: Asarita; Vardhamana; Chandaka; Panika; Rik; Gatha; and, Sama.
13.2. Every Gitaka, in turn, had two sections: Vastu and Anga. The different forms of Gitaka were classified according to the variations of their Vastu (section of the text) and Anga (styles of rendering the texts). The other distinguishing features were: Svara; Taala; and, Pada.
13.3. The ways of rendering the Gitaka had components (Anga) such as: Upavartana:– the end portion of a section of the text rendered in double speed; Prastara :- the concluding portion of one section is repeated as the opening of the following section; and, Shakha-Pratishaka:- certain sections are to be rendered twice – each in a different style- the first rendering is called Shakha and the other was called Prati-shakha.
14.1. In the Gitaka, the terms such as Svara; Taala; and, Pada have their own connotation. And, they do not carry the meaning that we now associate with those terms.
For instance; Taala in a Gitaka does not mean rhythmic patterns or beats; but, it is the measure of time-span (duration) of the Gitaka. The sections of the Gitaka were divided into smaller time-units, marked by specific action by hands (kriya), either by making sound (Sa-sabda) or without sound (Ni-sabda). These were said to be four-fold, each.
Nishabda: (a) Avapa: contracting fingers with the palm turned upwards; (b) Niskrama: spreading the fingers with the palm turned downwards; (c) Viksepa: moving hands swiftly as in Niskrama; and, (d) Pravesha: taking back the hand pointing downwards.
Sa-sabda: (a) Samaya: clapping by the right hand; (b) Taala: clapping by the left hand; (c): Sannipata: clapping with both hands together; and, (d) Dhruva : movement of the hand with the snapping of the fingers according to threefold Kaala.
[It is said; cymbal plying with its neutral yet audible sound, usually, accompanied the hand gestures during Gandharva, for attainment of Saamya (the moment of precise coordination of Taala, Svara and Pada).]
14.2. Similarly, Svara was not mere notes. It is, here, related to Taala (as explained above). The melodic-lines of the song were broken into segments to match the Taala (time-units) or the duration assigned to that section..
14.3. Pada, the verbal elements of the song were also important. The object of the songs was to praise Shiva (Shiva-stutau prayojani). The duration of each section of the Gitaka and that of the meaningless syllables (jham, tum, tha, ka etc) employed were also prescribed.
Nirgita
15.1. Nirgita, also called Bahirgita or Shska, too had elements of Svara, Taala and Pada. The Nirgita was a song form (Gita) suitable for dance (Nrtta) consisting vocal part (Dhruva) and instrumental part (Vadya). The instrumental part of the song (Veena- vadya-prayoga) was more prominent as compared to the verbal part (Dhruva-prayoga).The Vadya part was characterized by specific strokes (Karana) on the Veena. According to Abhinavagupta, the Svaras that are produced by striking (praharavishesha janyah) the strings of Veena in a specific manner is called Dhatu.
15.2. The Dhatu-s had four elements: Vistara (high pitched), Karana (low pitched), Aviddha (duration of the note) and Vyanjana (different ways of employing each finger), each of which had its variations. Such variations depended on whether the stroke was made on the upper end (uttaramukha) or lower end (adhara) of the Veena; the number of strokes made on the strings; the time span (guru and laghu); and, their sequences.
Pada, here, meant both the verbal text (Dhruva-prayoga) and the passages of instrumental play (Vadya-prayoga).
15.3. As regards Taala in Nirgita, it has the same connotation as in Gitaka. The entire time-span of the verbal composition (Dhruva) is broken into smaller segments; and each is measured in time –units (kaala pramana). The instrumental part of Nirgita was, however, free from restrictions of Taala.
Jaati-gita
16.1. Jaati-gita seemed to be simple songs with no marked division or refrain ( in contrast to Gitaka) . Jaati-gita songs were based in one or the other Jaati, class of melodies. They were perhaps illustrative representation of a Jaati group. For instance; a Gita based in Shadja-jaati represented the Shuddha variety of the Jaati.
Jaati-gita too had elements of Svara, Taala and Pada.
16.2. The Svara aspect of Jaati-gita-s exhibited the characteristics of the jaati-s to which they pertained. The Tala organisation (time-management) of the Jaati-gita was not as complex as that of the Gitaka and Nirgita. The Pada aspect of the Jati-gita-s was also fairly simple. The text consisted of Stuti pada-s addressed to Siva.
Kapala-ganas
17.1. Kapala-ganas were simple songs just as the Jaati-gitas, without any sectional organisation. They were based on melodic structures called Kapala-s. The seven Kapala-s were derived from Shuddha variety of seven Jaati-s.
The Pada of Kapala-ganas were all in praise of Shiva, particularly the Kapala adorned form of Shiva; and were interspersed with loud Hoonkara and sounds such as : Hum, Ha, Hu , Avu etc.
The Kambala–gana
18.1. The Kambala–gana, just as the Kapala-gana, was based in derivatives of Jaati known as Kambala. The Kambala-gana were said to be derived from Panchami-jaati. And, in their structure they resembled the Kapala-ganas.
19.1. The Gana of the Natyashastra had its roots in Gandharva Music. Several of the Gandharva – songs were adopted into Drama. For instance; in the Purvanga, that is during the preliminaries before the commencement of the Drama per se, the Gandharva songs of the type Nirgita were sung , to the accomniment of instruments, offering prayers to Shiva. This was flowed by a song in Gitaka format ; and by a Tandava dance of Shiva or a Lasya of Shiva and Devi to another Gitaka-song. Thereafter, the Sutradhara (Director and Stage-Manager) and his troupe enter the stage move in a rhythmic dance like steps and sing Gandharva-songs praying to the gods for successful enactment and completion of the play. However, during the entry and exit or at important junctures Dhruva songs were sung.
Some say that Gandharva or the sacred Music Marga performed during worship, in due course, gave place to Gana, the songs that were not so rigidly bound and were meant to entertain.
But, Abhinavagupta strongly refutes such a view; and, asserts that Gandharva and Gana flourished side by side even during later times. Though Gana owed to the Gandharva, there were differences between the two. In his commentary on the 33rd chapter of Natyashastra, Abhinavagupta draws a four-fold distinction between Gandharva and Gana Music-s.
According to Abhinavagupta , the two differ in their : in Svarupa – structure and ways of employing Svara, Taala and Pada; in Phala – the benefits or the objectives ; the one is in praise of Shiva and pleasing gods while the other strives to gladden the hearts of the audience in a theatrical performance; in Kaala – the context or the occasions of their rendering , one is for worship and the other is for entertainment; and , in Dharma – in their distinctive nature and functions.
[Gāndharvasya kiṃ lakṣaṇam? uktam adhyāyacatuṣṭayeṣu muninā |tathāpy anusandhāna-vandhyam mahā-bhāgam bodhayitum anusandhīyate |svara- tāla-pada-viśeṣātmakaṃ pravṛtti-nivṛtti-pradhāna-dṛṣṭādṛṣṭa-phala-sāma-veda-prabhavam anādi-kālavṛttim anyonyoparañjanā-guṇatā-vihīnaṃ gāndharvam iti svarūpa-phalāt kālād dharmāc ca bhidyamānam avaśyam gāna-vailakṣaṇyaṃ bhedaika-sampādanam]
In the next part of this series,
Let’s talk of Gana with particular reference to
The Music of Natyashastra.
References and Sources:
I gratefully acknowledge the following
Wonderfully well researched works:
Grama – Murchana – Jaati by Dr. Premalatha Nagarajan
Gandharva Form by Prof. Dr. N. Ramanathan
Abhinavagupta’s contribution to the solution of some problems in Indian Musicology by Shri Jaideva Singh
And
Dattilam: A Compendium of Ancient Indian Music edited by Emmie te Nijenhuis
Studies in the Nāṭyaśāstra: With Special Reference to the Sanskrit Drama in performance By Ganesh Hari Tarlekar
Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition by Guy L. Beck
Sruti in Ancient, Medieval and Modern Contexts by Prof. Dr. N. Ramanathan
http://carnatic2000.tripod.com/sruthi.htm
Dattilam: A Compendium of Ancient Indian Music edited by Emmie te Nijenhuis
Pictures are from Internet
Next
… Music in Natyashastra
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